Late 19th century
Common problems:
Economic colonialism
Concessions
Debt
International debt commissions
Responses:
nationalism
calls for political change: constitutionalism
EGYPT
1760s Egyptian self-rule by Mamluks
1805 Egyptian autonomy under Muhammad Ali (d. 1844)
waqf
commercial crops
state control of land
industrialization
1815 new style army conscription
1831 military schools
public education
1832 medical schools
Saint-Simonians
Military conquests:
1810s Arabian penninsula
1820 on Ottoman side vs. Greeks
1831 Palestine, Syria
1841 defeated by Anglo-Ottoman forces
dynasty of rulers with title Khedive, autonomous
1856 Suez Canal planned, British, French, Egyptian owned
Khedive Ismail, 1863-1879
cotton exports
Suez Canal opens, 1869
development:
infrastructure
education
debt default, 1876
International debt commission, loss of sovereignty
1882 Urabi revolt
1882 British protectorate
New tendencies:
nationalism (Mustafa Kamil)
Islamic reform (Muhammad Abduh, Salafiyya movment)
political Islam (al-Afghani)
IRAN
Safavid dynasty collapse, 1720s
Qajar dynasty, 1790s to 1925
Muhammad Shah, 1834-1848
Nasir al-Din Shah 1848-1896
Muzaffar al-Din Shah 1896-1906
Population
50% Persian/Iranian
25% Azeri/Turk
25% other: Kurd, Turcoman, Arab, etc.
1850s: 20% urban, 25% nomad, 55% village
Shia Muslim, with religious minorities: Armenian, Zoroastrian, Jewish
1828 Treaty of Turkmanchai
1857 Treaty of Paris
economic & political colonialism: Russia and Britain
1872 Reuters concession
autocracy
challenges:
political Islam (al-Afghani)
constitutionalism (Malkum Khan)
debt default, early 1900s
Ottoman Empire:
1876-78 Constitution, parliament
1876 Bulgarian uprising
1879 Serbian independence
formation of Armenian nationalist party (Hnchak)
1879 default, International debt commission
Responses:
autocracy
Ottomanism
nationalism